Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Relationship Between Affect Intolerance, Maladaptive Emotion Regulation, and Psychological Symptoms

  • Published:
International Journal of Cognitive Therapy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Affect intolerance (AI), one’s perceived sensitivity to, and intolerance of, unpleasant emotional states, is a risk and maintenance factor of affective disorders. To cope with AI, individuals may rely on maladaptive emotion regulation techniques that provide quick, but short-lived, relief from distress. Two cognitively based maladaptive emotion regulation strategies—repetitive negative thinking (RNT) and thought suppression (TS)—reflect contrasting attempts to cope with unwanted emotions. The present study sought to simultaneously examine the relationships between AI, maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and symptoms of mood and anxiety disorders using structural equation modeling. Data from a community sample (N = 590) was used to assess the relationship between an empirically derived latent AI factor and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). This latent AI factor demonstrated indirect effects on depression symptoms via RNT (β = 0.212, p = 0.039) and on OCD symptoms via RNT (β = 0.197, p = 0.021) and TS (β = 0.171, p = 0.001). There were no indirect effects of the latent factor on anxiety symptoms. These results suggest that elevated AI is associated with greater psychological symptoms via the use of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and that this relationship differs by symptom type.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abramowitz, J. S., Tolin, D. F., & Street, G. P. (2001). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression: a meta-analysis of controlled studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 21(5), 683–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramowitz, J. S., Whiteside, S., Kalsy, S. A., & Tolin, D. F. (2003). Thought control strategies in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 529–540.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amir, N., Cashman, L., & Foa, E. B. (1997). Strategies of thought control in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(8), 775–IN1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arditte, K. A., Çek, D., Shaw, A. M., & Timpano, K. R. (2016). The importance of assessing clinical phenomena in Mechanical Turk research. Psychological Assessment, 28(6), 684.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bardeen, J. R., Fergus, T. A., & Orcutt, H. K. (2013). Testing a hierarchical model of distress tolerance. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(4), 495–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Behrend, T. S., Sharek, D. J., Meade, A. W., & Wiebe, E. N. (2011). The viability of crowdsourcing for survey research. Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 800.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, A., Zvolensky, M. J., Vujanovic, A. A., & Moos, R. (2009). Integrating anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and discomfort intolerance: a hierarchical model of affect sensitivity and tolerance. Behavior Therapy, 40(3), 291–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. an evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17(2), 271–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bredemeier, K., McCole, K., Luther, L., Beck, A. T., & Grant, P. M. (2018). Reliability and validity of a brief version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale in outpatients with psychosis. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 1–14.

  • Buhr, K., & Dugas, M. J. (2002). The Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale: psychometric properties of the English version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(8), 931–945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 53–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carleton, R. N., Norton, M. P. J., & Asmundson, G. J. (2007). Fearing the unknown: a short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(1), 105–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016). Conducting clinical research using crowdsourced convenience samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12.

  • Clara, I. P., Cox, B. J., & Enns, M. W. (2001). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Depression–Anxiety–Stress Scales in depressed and anxious patients. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23(1), 61–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A., & de Silva, P. (1985). The nature of depressive and anxious, intrusive thoughts: distinct or uniform phenomena? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23(4), 383–393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend, B. P., Link, B. G., Kern, R., Shrout, P. E., & Markowitz, J. (1990). Measuring life events: the problem of variability within event categories. Stress Medicine, 6(3), 179–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dugas, M. J., & Robichaud, M. (2012). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: from science to practice. Routledge.

  • Dugas, M. J., Hedayati, M., Karavidas, A., Buhr, K., Francis, K., & Phillips, N. A. (2005). Intolerance of uncertainty and information processing: evidence of biased recall and interpretations. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29(1), 57–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehring, T., & Watkins, E. R. (2008). Repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(3), 192–205. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.3.192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehring, T., Zetsche, U., Weidacker, K., Wahl, K., Schönfeld, S., & Ehlers, A. (2011). The Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ): validation of a content-independent measure of repetitive negative thinking. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42(2), 225–232.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., & Salkovskis, P. M. (2002). The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14(4), 485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hajcak, G., Huppert, J. D., Simons, R. F., & Foa, E. B. (2004). Psychometric properties of the OCI-R in a college sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(1), 115–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), 227–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffries, E. R., McLeish, A. C., Kraemer, K. M., Avallone, K. M., & Fleming, J. B. (2016). The role of distress tolerance in the use of specific emotion regulation strategies. Behavior Modification, 40(3), 439–451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laposa, J. M., Collimore, K. C., Hawley, L. L., & Rector, N. A. (2015). Distress tolerance in OCD and anxiety disorders, and its relationship with anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 33, 8–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leyro, T. M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Bernstein, A. (2010). Distress tolerance and psychopathological symptoms and disorders: a review of the empirical literature among adults. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 576.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magee, J. C., Harden, K. P., & Teachman, B. A. (2012). Psychopathology and thought suppression: a quantitative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(3), 189–201.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McHugh, R. K., & Otto, M. W. (2011). Domain-general and domain-specific strategies for the assessment of distress intolerance. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25(4), 745.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McHugh, R. K., & Otto, M. W. (2012). Refining the measurement of distress intolerance. Behavior Therapy, 43(3), 641–651.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., & Horselenberg, R. (1996). Individual differences in thought suppression. The White Bear Suppression Inventory: factor structure, reliability, validity and correlates. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(5–6), 501–513.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najmi, S., & Wegner, D. M. (2009). Hidden complications of thought suppression. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 2(3), 210–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overbeek, T., Schruers, K., Vermetten, E., & Griez, E. (2002). Comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression: prevalence, symptom severity, and treatment effect. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.

  • Purdon, C. (2004). Empirical investigations of thought suppression in OCD. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 35(2), 121–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purdon, C., Rowa, K., & Antony, M. M. (2005). Thought suppression and its effects on thought frequency, appraisal and mood state in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(1), 93–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purdon, C., Gifford, S., McCabe, R., & Antony, M. M. (2011). Thought dismissability in obsessive-compulsive disorder versus panic disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(10), 646–653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raines, A. M., Vidaurri, D. N., Portero, A. K., & Schmidt, N. B. (2017). Associations between rumination and obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 113, 63–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, S., Peterson, R. A., Gursky, D. M., & McNally, R. J. (1986). Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency and the prediction of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24(1), 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salkovskis, P. M., & Campbell, P. (1994). Thought suppression induces intrusion in naturally occurring negative intrusive thoughts. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32(1), 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, A. M., Llabre, M. M., & Timpano, K. R. (2015). Affect intolerance and hoarding symptoms: a structural equation modeling approach. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 8(3), 222–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., Zvolensky, M. J., Cox, B. J., Deacon, B., Heimberg, R. G., Ledley, D. R., et al. (2007). Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: development and initial validation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3. Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, D. M., & Zanakos, S. (1994). Chronic thought suppression. Journal of Personality, 62(4), 615–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wenzlaff, R. M., Wegner, D. M., & Roper, D. W. (1988). Depression and mental control: the resurgence of unwanted negative thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(6), 882.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeman, J., Cassano, M., Perry-Parrish, C., & Stegall, S. (2006). Emotion regulation in children and adolescents. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(2), 155–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Miami, 5665 Ponce de Leon Blvd., Coral Gables, FL, 33146, USA

    Brittany A. Jaso, Stephanie E. Hudiburgh, Aaron S. Heller & Kiara R. Timpano

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Miami, P.O. Box 248185, Coral Gables, FL, 33124-0751, USA

    Brittany A. Jaso, Stephanie E. Hudiburgh, Aaron S. Heller & Kiara R. Timpano

Authors
  1. Brittany A. Jaso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephanie E. Hudiburgh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Aaron S. Heller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kiara R. Timpano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brittany A. Jaso.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jaso, B.A., Hudiburgh, S.E., Heller, A.S. et al. The Relationship Between Affect Intolerance, Maladaptive Emotion Regulation, and Psychological Symptoms. J Cogn Ther 13, 67–82 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41811-019-00061-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41811-019-00061-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation